Chii chinonzi Internal Resistance?

Kupikisa kwemukati kupikisa kuyerera kwazvino mukati mebhatiri, kunosanganisira ohmic kuramba kubva kune zvinhu uye polarization kuramba kubva kune electrochemical maitiro. Iyo inokonzeresa kudonha kwemagetsi panguva yekushanda uye inowedzera sezera remabhatiri, inokanganisa zvakananga kuita, kushanda zvakanaka, uye hupenyu.

Uku kuramba kuripo mumabhatiri ese nekuti -electrodes, electrolyte, separators, neconnection-haana maconductor akakwana. Kana ikozvino ichiyerera kuburikidza nebhatiri, rimwe simba remagetsi rinoshandura kupisa pane kuisa simba mudziyo wako, uye kurasikirwa kwesimba uku kunobva mukupikisa kwemukati.

Kushanda Kwemukati Resistance muBattery Systems

Bhatiri rinoshanda sezvinopfuura simba remagetsi riri nyore. Zvinoenderana ne theorem yaThévenin, chero bhatiri rinoshanda rinogona kuenzanisirwa seyakanaka voltage sosi yakabatana munhevedzano nekupikisa kwayo kwemukati. Modhi iyi inotsanangura kuti sei simba rebhatiri richidzika pasi-kuramba kwemukati kuchipedza mamwe magetsi anogadzirwa.

Kana ukayera bhatiri rakavhurika-circuit voltage (isina load), unoona simba raro remagetsi (EMF). Batanidza bhatiri iro kune mudziyo, uye iyo terminal voltage inodonha pakarepo. Musiyano uripo pakati pezviviri izvi unoratidza voltage inopedzwa nekupikiswa kwemukati. Hukama hunotevera mutemo weOhm: kudonha kwevoltage kwakaenzana neazvino zvakapetwa nekupikiswa kwemukati (V=IR).

Kune bhatiri rine 12V EMF uye 0.02Ω yemukati kuramba ichidhirowa 200A, iyo yemukati voltage inodonha inosvika 4V, ichisiya 8V chete pamaterminal. Kudzikiswa kunoshamisa uku kunotsanangura mabrownouts mune zvakakwirira{{6}zvishandiso zvazvino uye kuti sei kuramba kuchikosha kupfuura zvinofungwa nevakawanda.

Zvikamu zveMukati Resistance

Kuramba kwemukati hakusi chiitiko chimwe chete-kunosanganisa marudzi akawanda ekuramba anopindura zvakasiyana nemamiriro ebhatiri.

Ohmic Resistance

Ohmic resistance inomiririra yakatwasuka magetsi kuramba yebhatiri zvinhu. Inobva:

Electronic resistance: The resistivity ye electrode zvinhu, vateresi vemazuva ano, uye yemukati yekubatanidza. Kunyangwe simbi dzinoita zvisina kukwana nekuda kwekristaro kusakwana, kusvibiswa, uye kudhumhana kwemagetsi mukati meiyo conductor lattice.

Ionic kuramba: Kupikisa ion kufamba kuburikidza ne electrolyte uye separator. Electrolyte conductivity, ion mobility, uye separator permeability zvese zvinopa. Ichi chikamu chinopindura pakarepo kuyerera kwezvino uye chinotevera mutemo waOhm chaizvo.

Bhatiri reAlkaline reAA rinowanzova ne 0.15Ω ohmic kuramba patembiricha yekamuri, richisvetuka kusvika 0.9Ω pa -40 dhigirii sezvo kuderedzwa kweiyoni kunowedzera kuramba. Pamadhigirii makumi mana, inodonha kusvika pa 0.1Ω apo iyo electrolyte diffusion coefficient inowedzera.

Polarization Resistance

Polarization kuramba inobuda kubva kune electrochemical maitiro panguva yekuchaja uye kubuda. Kusiyana neohmic kuramba, inoshanduka zvine simba zvichibva pamabatiro anoita bhatiri.

Electrochemical polarization: Kana ikozvino kuyerera, electrochemical reactions panzvimbo ye electrode inoda activation simba. Bhatiri rinofanirwa kugovera imwe voltage kuti ikunde chipingamupinyi chesimba rekufambisa maerekitironi pakati pe electrode ne electrolyte. Iyi polarization inovaka pachiyero chemicrosecond uye inodzikira kana zvazvino zvadzikira.

Concentration polarization: Sezvo mabhatiri achibuda, ion concentration gradients inokura mukati me electrolyte. Nzvimbo dziri padyo nemagetsi dzinopera nepo mamwe matunhu achichengetedza huwandu hwepamusoro. Kusaenzana uku kunogadzira diffusion impedance sezvo maion anofanirwa kutama achipesana nemaconcentration gradients. Concentration polarization inokura mumasekonzi uye inomiririra chinhu chakakosha chekuramba panguva yekuyerera kwakakwira{3}ikozvino.

Pamwe chete, izvi zvinokonzerwa nepolarization zvinogona kudarika ohmic resistance, kunyanya mu lithium-mabhatiri emotokari yeion apo mabhatiri emotokari akakwirisa anoumba maconcentration gradients.

Internal Resistance inLithium Ion Vehicle Battery

Lithium-mabhatiri emotokari eion anoratidza kusamira zvakanaka kwemukati izvo zvinokanganisa kushanda kwemotokari yemagetsi. Mabhatiri aya anowanzo chengetedza mashandiro emukati ari pasi pe1mΩ pasero nekuda kwekukura kwawo uye dhizaini yakakwenenzverwa yezvishandiso zvakakwirira-zvino.

Mukati me lithium-maion cell anoramba akati sandarara munzvimbo dzakasiyana dzekuchaja-kubvira pa270mΩ pa0% kusvika 250mΩ pa70% state of charge. Kugadzikana uku kunopesana zvakanyanya nenickel{7}}mabhatiri akavakirwa, apo kusamira kunochinja zvakanyanya nechaji.

Zvisinei, kuchembera kunokanganisa zvakanyanya lithium-ion internal resistance. Sezvo mabhatiri anotenderera, passivation layer inonzi solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) inovaka pamagetsi. Iyi SEI layer inowedzera kuramba kwemukati uye inoshanda sechiratidzo chakavimbika chehutano hwebhatiri. Kana kuramba kwemukati kuchikwira zvakanyanya pamusoro pezvinokosha, zvinoratidza kuti magumo aswedera-e-nehupenyu.

Kune mota dzemagetsi, kuramba uku kunobata zvakananga:

Driving range: Kudzivirirwa kwepamusoro kwemukati kunoshandura simba rakawanda kuti ridzise pane kufambisa. Bhatiri rine zvakapetwa kaviri mukati mekudzivirira rinogona kurasikirwa ne15-20% yemhando yaro inoshanda pasi pemamiriro ekutyaira.

Peak power delivery: Kukwirisa kwemotokari kunoenderana nekukwanisa kwebhatiri kufambisa-zvino puruzira. Kuwedzera kupikisa kunoderedza kuyerera kwezvino, kuderedza simba rinowanikwa. Bhatiri reEV rine 50mΩ kuramba rinounza kukwirisa kwakanyanya kudarika rimwe rine 200mΩ.

Thermal management: Resistance-yakagadzirwa kupisa kunoda kushanda kutonhora masisitimu. Iko kupisa kunogadzirwa kwakaenzana neI²R, saka kuramba kwakanyanya kunowedzera kutonhora kunodiwa uye kushandiswa kwesimba.

Kuchaja kumhanya: Internal resistance inomisa-mitengo yekuchaja. Kupikisa kwakanyanya kunokonzeresa kukwira kwevoltage yakawandisa panguva yekuchaja, kumanikidza ma charger controller kudzikisa ikozvino kudzivirira overvoltage mamiriro.

Zvinhu Zvinokonzera Kuramba Kwemukati

Multiple variables inokanganisa kupikisa kwemukati, kugadzira kupindirana kwakaoma kunogadzirisa kushanda kwebhatiri pasi pemamiriro akasiyana.

Tembiricha Migumisiro

Tembiricha inoshandura zvakanyanya kuramba kwemukati kuburikidza nemhedzisiro yayo paion mobility uye kemikari reaction rates. Kutonhora kutonhora kunonoka kufamba kweion kuburikidza ne electrolyte, kuwedzera ionic kuramba. Lithium-ion sero pa -20 dhigirii inogona kuratidza ka2-3 kanopimwa nekuyerwa pa25 degree.

Tembiricha dzinopisa dzinowanzo dzikisa kuramba nekuwedzera ion kufamba uye reaction kinetics. Zvisineyi, kupisa kwakanyanya kunoderedza midziyo yebhatiri, zvozopedzisira zvawedzera-kuramba kwekugara kuburikidza nekuchembera.

State of Charge

Akasiyana bhatiri chemistries anoratidza akasiyana maitiro ekupikisa munzvimbo dzese dzekuchaja. Lithium-mabhatiri eion anochengetedza kusamira zvakanaka kubva pa20% kusvika pa80% state of charge, achiwedzera chete pakunyanya kunyanyisa.

Nickel-metal-mabhatiri ehydride anoratidza kusiyana kwepamusoro. Ivo vanoratidza peak kuramba nekukurumidza mushure mekubuda kwakazara uye mushure mekuchaja yakazara. Kuita kwakaringana kunooneka mushure memaawa akati wandei ekuzorora zvichitevera kuchaja, kana maconcentration gradients akaenzana.

Zera uye Cycle Count

Kuchembera kwebhatiri kunowedzera kuramba kwemukati kuburikidza nemaitiro akawanda ekuderedza:

SEI layer kukora pa lithium-ion anodes

Electrolyte decomposition kuderedza conductivity

Electrode material structural shanduko

Kurasikirwa kwezvinhu zvinoshanda kubva kumagetsi

Kuwedzera kuonana kuramba pazvibatanidza

Lithium-ion cell itsva inogona kutanga pa30mΩ yokwira kusvika pa80-100mΩ mushure mema cycle 1000. Kupfuura 150% yekutanga kuramba kazhinji inoratidza kuti huwandu hwadzikira pazasi 80% yehuwandu hwakayerwa.

Discharge Rate

Kudhirowa kwazvino kunokanganisa kuyerwa kwekupikisa kuburikidza nepolarization mhedzisiro. Mareti ekubuda akakwira anogadzira akakurisa maconcentration gradients uye yakanyanya kuomarara electrochemical polarization. Bhatiri rinogona kuratidza 40mΩ pa1C kubuda asi 65mΩ pa 5C kubuda nekuda kweaya masimba masimba.

Kuyera Kupikiswa Kwemukati

Kuyera kwemukati kupikisa kuyerwa kunoda kunzwisisa nzira dzakasiyana dzekuyedza uye mashandisiro adzo.

AC Impedance Method (AC-IR)

Mutoo weAC unoshandisa kachiratidzo kanochinjanisa kazvino-kazhinji pa1kHz frequency-uye inoyera mhinduro yemagetsi. Iyi yepamusoro-inoyera inoyera kuramba kweohmic, sezvo polarization isinganyatsokuridzi panguva idzi.

AC-IR yekuongorora zvakanakira:

Hazviparadzi-bhatiri

Chiyero chekukurumidza (milliseconds)

Zvinoenderana, zvinodzokororwa mhedzisiro

Yakajairwa nzira yekuyedzwa kwekugadzira

Iyo 1kHz frequency yakasarudzwa nekuti inobata ohmic kuramba ichidzivirira inononoka electrochemical maitiro. Zvisineyi, izvi zvinoreva kuti AC-IR inoratidzika yakaderera pane zviyero zveDC, sezvo polarization inopokana isina kunyatsobatwa.

Mabhatiri anoedza anoshandiswa mukugadzira mota yemagetsi anowanzo kuyera pama frequency akawanda (100Hz kusvika 10kHz) kuratidza zvirinani zvikamu zvakasiyana zvekupikisa. Iyo Nyquist zano kubva ku electrochemical impedance spectroscopy inogona kupatsanura ohmic, kutamisa kuchaja, uye kuramba kupararira.

DC Resistance Method (DC-IR)

Iyo DC nzira inoshandisa inogara iripo ikozvino pulse (kazhinji 2-3 masekonzi) uye inoyera kudonha kwemagetsi. Izvi zvinotora kuzara kwemukati kuramba kunosanganisira ese polarization mhedzisiro pavanenge vachikura.

DC-IR maitiro ekuyera:

Rekodha yakavhurika-circuit voltage (V₁)

Isa nguva dzose mutoro wazvino (I)

Rekodha yakaremerwa voltage mushure mekudzikamiswa (V₂)

Verenga: R=(V₁ - V₂) / I

Iyi nzira inoratidza kuramba kunowanikwa panguva chaiyo yekushanda kwebhatiri, zvichiita kuti ive yakakosha pakufanotaura kwekuita. Nekudaro, makwikwi ekuyedza akakwira anogona kusimbisa mabhatiri madiki, uye electrode polarization inoda chaiyo nguva kudzivirira kuyerwa kukanganisa.

Kune muenzaniso unoshanda: Bhatiri rinoratidza 3.8V rakaburitswa uye 3.5V pasi pe20A mutoro ine mukati mekushomeka kwe (3.8 - 3.5) / 20=0.015Ω kana 15mΩ.

Pulse Testing

Kuyedza kwepamberi kunoshandisa akawanda emazuva ano pulses pamareti akasiyana kuratidza kuti kuramba kunoshanduka sei nedanho razvino. Iyi nzira inoburitsa chimiro chebhatiri chakazara chekuramba mukati mekushandisa kwayo.

Yakajairika pulse test sequence inogona kusanganisira:

5-second pulse pa1C rate

5-sekondi kupomba pa 3C chiyero

10-yechipiri kupomba pa5C rate

Kurekodha voltage mhinduro kune yega yega

Iyi data inoratidza kana kuramba kunowedzera zvakatevedzana neazvino kana kuratidza hunhu husina mutsara hunoratidza zvakakomba polarization mhedzisiro.

Impact paBattery Performance

Kupikisa kwemukati kunoteya zvakakosha zvemabatiro ebhatiri izvo vashandisi vanosangana nazvo zvakananga.

Runtime uye Capacity

Kupikisa kwepamusoro kwemukati kunopfupisa nguva yekumhanya pasi pesimba rinogara richiremerwa. Kana bhatiri richipa zvazvino, kuramba kwemukati kunopedza voltage yaizogonesa mutoro. Sezvo kuramba kunowedzera, terminal voltage inodonha nekukurumidza, ichisvika cutoff voltage kare.

Tsvagiridzo pamabhatiri efoni yakaratidza izvi zvinoshamisa. Mabhatiri matatu ane huwandu hwakafanana chiyero asi akasiyana emukati kuramba akaedzwa pasi pekuyedzerwa mitoro yeGSM:

Nickel-cadmium (155mΩ): 120 maminetsi ekutaura nguva pa 3C discharge

Lithium-ion (320mΩ): 50 maminetsi ekutaura nguva pa 3C kubuda

Nickel-metal-hydride (778mΩ): Yatadza kushanda pa 3C discharge

Iyo nickel-metal{{1}hydride bhatiri, zvisinei nekuti yaikwana nguva yekutaura yakawedzerwa, yatadza kuburitsa zvazvino nekuda kwekunyanya kuramba. Kuramba kwayo kwakanyanya kwakakonzera kuti voltage iderere pazasi pesevha yekushanda kwefoni.

Kubudirira uye Heat Generation

Resistance inoshandura simba remagetsi kuti ridziye kuburikidza neJoule effect (P=I²R). Izvi zvinomiririra tsvina yakachena-simba raigona kunge rakaisa application pachinzvimbo ichipera sekupisa.

Kune lithium-ion bhatiri remota inodhirowa 200A ine 50mΩ zvachose kuramba:

Kugadzira kupisa=(200A)² × 0.05Ω=2000W

Uku kuenderera mberi kwe2kW kupisa kunoda kutonhora kwakanyanya

Kana kuramba kwakapetwa kaviri kusvika ku100mΩ, chizvarwa chekupisa chinowedzera kusvika pa4kW, zvakapetwa kaviri kutonhora zvinodiwa uye kuderedza kugona kwemotokari. Kupisa hakungotambisi simba chete asi kunomhanyisa kuparara kwebhatiri kuburikidza netembiricha yakakwira yekushandisa.

Simba Kugona

Maximum simba rekutumira rinoenderana zvakanyanya nekupikisa kwemukati. bhatiri repamusoro pesimba rekubuda kwemagetsi rinoitika kana mutoro unomira zvakaenzana nekupikisa kwemukati (impedance matching). Zvisinei, nzvimbo iyi yekushandisa inorasa 50% yesimba rebhatiri mukati sekupisa.

Zvishandiso zvinoshanda zvinoshanda pakakwirira mitoro yekupokana kuti ishande, asi kuramba kwemukati kuchiri kuseta muganho wepamusoro pane simba rinoburitswa. Zvekumhanyisa mota yemagetsi, bhatiri remukati kuramba rinotarisa kana mota inogamuchira yakaringana ikozvino kune yakanyanya torque.

Bhatiri paki ine 400V uye 20mΩ yemukati kuramba inogona ne theoretically kuunza 8MW peak simba muchidimbu. Paki imwe chete ine 80mΩ kuramba inodonha kusvika ku2MW-kuderedza ne75% mukugona kuita basa.

Nzira Yokuderedza Kuramba Kwemukati

Kunzwisisa kupikisa kwemukati kunotungamirira kune mazano ekugadzirisa pane zvose dhizaini uye maitiro ekushanda.

Battery Design Kuvandudzwa

Kusarudzwa kwezvinhu: Shandisa-zvinoita maelectrode epamusoro ane polarization yakaderera. Single{{2}crystal cathode materials, high-nickel formulations, uye optimized carbon additives zvese zvinoderedza kusamira.

Electrolyte optimization: Low-viscosity electrolytes ane high ionic conductivity inoderedza ionic resistance. Advanced additives inovandudza wettability uye ion kutakura.

Electrode architecture: Ma electrode akaonda anoderedza kupararira kureba. Yakagadziridzwa ikozvino yekuunganidza dhizaini inoderedza kushomeka kwemagetsi. Yakakodzera compaction zviyero density kurwisa ion kufamba.

Separator tekinoroji: Vaparadzi vatete vane porosity yakakwirira vanoderedza kuramba uchichengetedza kuchengeteka. Ceramic-yakavharidzirwa separators inovandudza kugadzikana kwemafuta pasina kuwanda kwekuramba.

Maitiro Ekushanda

Kudzora tembiricha: Chengetedza mabhatiri mukati metembiricha yakakwana (15-35 madhigirii akawanda elithium-ion). Active thermal management inodzivirira zvese kutonhora-temperature kuramba kuwedzera uye kupisa-kuchimbidza kuchembera.

Charge management: Dzivisa yakanyanyisa voltage states. Chengeta mabhatiri ari pakati pe20-80% yestate of charge kana zvichibvira kuderedza kushushikana-induced resistance growth.

Miganho yazvino: Remekedza C-zvakatemerwa. Kuwedzeredza kuburitsa mitengo kunogadzira polarization uye kukurumidza kuderera. Kwehupenyu hurefu, muganho wakaramba uchiburitswa kusvika ku1-2C mitengo.

Nguva dzekuzorora: Bvumira maconcentration gradients kuti aenzane mushure mekutakura mitoro inorema. Voltage inopora zvakanyanya mushure me30-60 masekonzi akazorora sezvo concentration yepolarization inopera.

Maintenance uye Monitoring

Smart bhatiri manejimendi masisitimu anoramba achitarisa yemukati kuramba sechiratidzo chehutano. Kukwira kwemaitiro ekupikisa kunotanga yambiro kusati kwadzikira zvakanyanya.

Kune bhatiri mapaketi, kuenzanisa kwesero kunova kwakakosha. Kana maseru ega ega akakura kuramba, anove mabhodhoro anodzikamisa kuita kwepakeji. Kuongororwa nguva dzose kunozivisa masero asina simba asati akanganisa paki yese.

Kugadzirisa kwakakodzera kwekubatanidza kunodzivirira kuwedzera kupikisa kurambana. Mumabhatiri emotokari mahombe, loose connections anogona kuwedzera mamiliohm akati wandei-anokwana kuti ashande zvakanaka. Kuongorora nguva nenguva uye kuona torque kunochengetedza kubatanidza-kusagadzikana.

Kuramba Kwemukati seChiratidzo chehutano

Battery mamiriro ehutano (SoH) inopindirana zvakasimba nekupikisa kwemukati. Nekukura kwemabhatiri, simba rinopera apo kuramba kuchikwira-zvose zvichiratidza kudzikira. Kuramba kwemukati kunopa zvakanakira kuongororwa kwehutano:

Haisi-inonetsa: Resistance kuyerwa kunongoda mapfupi emazuva ano pulses, kwete kuzara kwekuburitsaQuick: Mibairo inowanikwa mumasekonzi maringe nemaawa ekuyedzwa kwehuwanduSensitive: Resistance shanduko dzinowanzoonekwa pamberi pekurasikirwa kukuru kwesimbaPredictive: Resistance maitiro kufanotaura kusara kwehupenyu hunobatsira

Tsvagiridzo inoratidza kusamira zvakanaka kwebhatiri kunokwanisa kufanotaura kupera kwebhatiri{-kwehupenyu hune huchokwadi hunodarika makumi mapfumbamwe neshanu kubva muzana uchishandisa data kubva kuma100 ekutanga chete. Mamodheru ekudzidza emuchina akadzidziswa kusimba simba rinopfuura kugona{{5}kunoenderana nekufungidzira.

Pamabhatiri elithium-eion, kusamira kunowedzera zvakatevedzana nekuverenga kusvika kumagumo-ye-yeupenyu, paino mhanya. Sero idzva rinotanga pa30mΩ rinogona kusvika pa50mΩ pa500 macycles uye 100mΩ pa1000 cycles risati rakwira kusvika ku150mΩ pa1200 cycles.

Mitemo yeIndasitiri ndiyo inotsanangura kupera kwebhatiri{-se80% yasara simba kana 200% yekutanga kuramba mukati, zvisinei kuti chii chinotanga kuitika. Mabhatiri mazhinji anosvika pachikumbaridzo chekupikisa pamberi pechikumbaridzo, zvichiita kuti kuramba kuve kwakanyanya kuchengetedza hutano metric.

Mibvunzo Inowanzo bvunzwa

Ndeupi musiyano uripo pakati peAC uye DC yemukati kuramba?

AC yemukati mekudzivirira inoyera kunyanya ohmic resistance uchishandisa- frequency signals (kazhinji 1kHz) isingatenderi kuti polarization itange. DC yemukati kuramba inobata kupikisa kwakazara kunosanganisira polarization nekushandisa yakaramba iripo mitoro. Makoshero eDC anowanzo kudarika AC kukosha ne20-50% nekuti anosanganisira dynamic polarization kuramba.

Kupikisa kwemukati kunogona kuderedzwa mushure mekunge kwawedzera here?

Kana zvimiro zvaparara-SEI layer kukura, kuparara kwezvinhu, kana kuora kweelectrolyte-kuwedzera kwekudzivirira kunogara zvachose. Nekudaro, kuramba kwechinguvana kunowedzera kubva mukutemerwa polarization, tembiricha yakaderera, kana kusvibiswa dzimwe nguva kunogona kudzoserwa kuburikidza nekwakakodzera mamiriro ekutenderera kana kupisa kwekupisa. Fresh electrolyte kutsiva panguva yekugadziridza inogona kudzoreredza kumwe kuita.

Sei mamwe mabhatiri achinzwa kudziya panguva yekushandiswa?

Kugadzira kupisa kubva mukati mekudzivirira kunoita kuti mabhatiri adziye panguva yekubuda. Simba rakabviswa sekupisa kwakaenzana neskweya yemazuva ano kuramba (I²R). Kuyerera kwepamusoro kunoburitsa kupisa kwakanyanya. Bhatiri rakadhirowa 10A rine 0.1Ω kuramba rinogadzira 10W yekupisa-inokwana kudziya zvinooneka bhatiri mukati memaminitsi.

Kuramba kwemukati kunogona kuderera zvakadii?

Fizikisi inoisa miganho yakakosha yakavakirwa pane zvinhu conductivity uye electrochemical kinetics. Lithium yemazuva ano-masero emotokari eion anowana 20-30mΩ kuburikidza nedhizaini yakakwenenzverwa. Kumwe kudzikisira kunoda zvinhu zvebudiriro kana zvakasiyana zvakanyanya masero ekuvaka. Theoretical mishoma iripo yakatenderedza 10-15mΩ zvichibva pane zvazvino tekinoroji miganho.

References

Energizer Technical Bulletin (2005). Battery Internal Resistance

BioLogic Yekudzidza Center (2024). Internal Resistance Series

Wikipedia. Kuramba kwemukati (Yakagadziridzwa Ndira 2025)

Battery University. Kupikisa Kwemukati Kunobata Sei Kuita

x-engineer.org. Maverengero eKuramba Kwemukati kweBattery Cell

Nature Scientific Reports (2018). Kudzidza kweChiyero Nguva yeChiyero pane Internal Resistance

Iyo kambani Hioki Corporation. Lithium-ion Battery Internal Resistance Testing